Developing a novel psychographic-behavioral qualitative mapping

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International Journal of Serious Games Volume 8, Issue 2, June 2021

ISSN: 2384-8766 https://doi.org/10.17083/ijsg.v8i2.422

method for exergames

James Smith

, Matthew D. Lee

, Louise A. Ellis

, Kiran Ijaz

Kathleen Yin

Centre for Healthcare Resilience and Implementation Science, Australian Institute of

Health Innovation, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia, [email protected]u,

[email protected]du.au

School of Nursing, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, USA,

[email protected]enn.edu

Centre for Health Informatics Australian Institute for Health Innovation, Macquarie

University, Sydney, Australia, kiran.ijaz@mq.edu.au, kathleen.[email protected]

Abstract

Location-based augmented reality games, used in several smartphone devices, have

the potential to improve health outcomes by transforming gaming from a sedentary

leisure pursuit to an active leisure pursuit thus having positive physical, psychological

and social implications. We consider two games, Harry Potter: Wizards Unite and

Pokémon GO, by qualitatively mapping both psychographic and behavioral data to

profile groups of players to fully understand how we can better design location-based

augmented reality exergames to improve exercise and health. Data was collected

through an online open-ended, text-box survey (proforma) hosted on Qualtrics, with

participants reached via virtual snowballing. The proforma was posted on four

subreddit forums dedicated to Harry Potter: Wizards Unite and Pokémon GO for two

weeks, and 1052 participants responded. Our study aligns with a deductive category

application, with all highlighted excerpts coded using a predetermined coding scheme.

Overall, three themes were identified: 1) player loyalty, 2) player involvement and 3)

player constraints. We conclude that psychographic constraints experienced can

negatively influence player preference and behavior. However, psychographic

enablers such as player involvement with the franchise and player loyalty toward the

brand can act to sustain continued gameplay across different player types and should

not be underestimated as a powerful influence in decision-making, choice behavior,

and behavior change (to improve exercise and health).

Keywords: Augmented reality, Exergames, Harry Potter: Wizards Unite, Pokémon GO,

Player typologies, Psychographics

1 Introduction

Serious games have a multiple purpose that attaches at least one characterizing goal such

as education or health-related benefit (e.g. games for health) to a digital game without

compromising player experience [1, 2]. Exergames are a prominent area of serious games

as they include exertion (physical activity) plus video game aimed to increase player’s

physical activity [3]. Augmented Reality (AR) can enhance engagement by bringing the

wonders of a fantasy world to life by altering how players view their physical realities, with

the hope for more profound and long-lasting player involvement [4].

Due to the rise of social networks and mobile computing technology, exergames

can now incorporate the user’s physical location to influence the game world [3, 5]. These

location-based games as exergames are AR games because they augment a virtual world on

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International Journal of Serious Games Volume 8, Issue 2, June 2021

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top of our real-world environment to create a hybrid space, giving the illusion of playing in

the context of the real world [3, 5, 6]. Smartphone devices make exergames easily

accessible and therefore have the potential to increase physical activity across multiple

populations [3, 7-12]. With the potential link to attaining multiple health-related benefits,

exergames can transform gaming from a sedentary leisure pursuit to an active leisure pursuit

having positive physical, social and psychological implications [7, 12-14]. Harry Potter:

Wizards Unite (HPWU) and Pokémon GO (PGO) are ideal exergames to compare [3, 12]

as these two popular games were designed by the same company called Niantic Inc [15,

16], that incorporated AR by designing and packaging it alongside the same AR digital

points of interest (PoIs: represent real-world objects) [3, 10] for easy experiential

consumption [17].

According to Laato et al. [3] typical examples of location-based AR exergames

include HPWU, PGO, Ingress (Prime) and The Walking Dead: Our World. Laato et al. [3]

reported HPWU’s having a similar effect to PGO on increasing mild player exercise. Other

previous research found that playing PGO increased mild exercise, can be a gateway for

exercise for inactive individuals, and provided multi-layered motivation for exercise,

including in-game rewards and social features [18]. The authors also highlight that PGO

can be integrated into a daily commute, and during other travels, and have the potential to

provide other health-related benefits, such as social well-being [18]. More recently, Ellis et

al. [12] identified that HPWU and PGO exergames have the potential to promote physical

and mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic.

PGO and HPWU currently dominate the location-based AR exergame market [19]

by successfully creating a magical and extraordinary player experience that encourages

healthy outdoor exploration and social gameplay [5, 6, 20]. In PGO, players take on the

role of adventurers on a quest to travel across the land, searching far and wide for fictional

creatures called Pokémon, who will appear on the game map once a player is within a given

distance of them. Once a Pokémon is found, players may attempt to capture items called

Pokéballs (thrown using a simple flicking motion), which they can restock by visiting PoIs

called gyms or Pokéstops [3]. HPWU players are made to feel like part of a complex story

set in the Wizarding World, with players taking on the role of members of a special Task

Force investigating the truth behind a mysterious phenomenon known as the Calamity,

which is causing chaos around the world. To do this, players seek out objects displaced

from the proper places and times, on which traces of the Calamity’s magic may yet be

found. To extract these traces (and return these objects to where and when they belong),

players must quickly and accurately trace the pattern of a spell on the screen, with many

traces requiring multiple successful casts to fully extract. Each spell attempt – successful

or failed – consumes a certain amount of spell energy, a limited resource which can only

be restored at PoIs [3].

It is important to note however, that AR design factors for exergames and

commercial ends are not always aligned, which can create tension between aspects of AR

games designed for health-related benefits and those intended to promote commercial

success. This provides an interesting and complex dynamic that is highly dependent on how

both affect player preference and behavior [1, 3, 4]. As such, there is a pressing need to

better understand the influencing factors that hinder or enable player preferences and

behavior for different player groups, as this can influence player choice behavior and

behavior change (e.g., improving health-related outcomes).

2 Theoretical background

2.1 Segmentation Theory

Traditionally, researchers have used Segmentation Theory (dividing participants into

segments to understand preferences and behaviors) to inform serious game design [21-24].

Demographic segmentation (descriptive features) using gender or age, etc. were found to

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International Journal of Serious Games Volume 8, Issue 2, June 2021

ISSN: 2384-8766 https://doi.org/10.17083/ijsg.v8i2.422

be too simplistic as well as problematic in the gaming literature, with some researchers

suggesting that a focus on such descriptive features is insufficient to determine pertinent

differences between game players [24-26]. Consequently, demographic aspects have not

been of interest in research on player typologies [21].

Turning to behavioral descriptors in segmentation, these can include current and

former players [27, 28]. However, more detailed behavioral descriptors exist and have been

used to segment different player behaviors based on behavioral engagement typologies [24,

27]. Initially, this started with behavioral segmentation of two explicit groups consisting of

casual and hardcore players [19, 24]. This casual/hardcore binary is also expanded upon in

the game literature to provide a more comprehensive player behavioral range by including

both mid-core players (that lie in-between the two extremes of casual and hardcore players)

[12, 29], and those who are yet to establish any type of player identity (no-identification)

[12, 27, 30].

However, immediate questions remain: what factors underlie player preferences

and behaviors, and how can we harness this knowledge to improve AR game design?

Running parallel to this work is a complimentary body of literature on health-related

benefits based on psychographic variables consisting of constraints, involvement, and

loyalty. This work provides important types of barriers and enablers for attaining health-

related benefits [31-33]. Given serious games goal for players to attain health-related

benefits [1, 3], researchers in this field should seriously consider how constraints,

involvement and loyalty impact upon player preference and behavior. Furthermore, few

studies in the serious games literature have applied qualitative methods to Segmentation

Theory [22], despite qualitative methods potential benefit to provide a deeper understanding

of player preference and behavior [24].

3 Methodological contribution

A good method or tool is currently lacking in the literature on studying different player

typologies [21]. As shown in Table 1 and Table 2, we introduce a novel qualitative mapping

method to segmentation in our paper for the first time, that utilizes both behavioral

descriptors (player typologies and player status) and psychographic (constraints,

involvement, loyalty) aspects of player populations to explore the different factors that

interact to either enable or hinder player preferences and behavior. We also recognize that

players are heterogeneous in their levels of constraints (structural, interpersonal &

intrapersonal) [32-35], involvement (attraction, sign-value, centrality, & risk) [32-36], and

loyalty (attitudinal and word-of-mouth) [32-35] (See Table 1-2). Therefore, our combined

psychographic-behavioral mapping method to segment and sort different player profiles

into meaningful homogenous subgroups is an important endeavor for developing tailored

AR game design strategies to promote health-related benefits [33, 37].

At present, in-depth internal psychographics, including player constraints,

involvement, and loyalty, remains hidden from game designers and health practitioners

alike [31-33, 35, 38-41]. Yet, this information is highly useful in AR serious game design

with the goal for people to attain health-related benefits. Constraints that people are exposed

to during play can negatively influence player behavior and their preferences [35, 38, 41,

42]. Likewise, enablers such as involvement is “an unobservable state of motivation,

arousal, or interest towards an activity” (p.246) [43], that has a well-established relationship

to loyalty in the maintenance of strong attitudes toward resistance to change preferences

[31, 35, 44, 45] (See Table 1). Together, an understanding of constraints and enablers (such

as involvement and loyalty) can provide game designers and other stakeholders a better

understanding of how to implement design changes or modifications to enhance player

perceptions and help players attain health-related benefits.

Accordingly, the following aim is formulated: To develop a novel psychographic-

behavioral qualitative mapping method to understand patterns between how player

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preference and play behavior is affected by perceived constraints, involvement and loyalty.

Our study is providing a novel methodology for studying the pattern of play. We are

overlaying self-defined behavioral patterns (such as ‘hardcore’ and ‘casual’) with

constraining and enabling factors, thus providing a possibility of targeting player subgroups

by identifying specific constraints and enablers, which could improve future serious

exergame use and design. To our knowledge, the factors we are assessing have not been

combined in this context. Our novel qualitative mapping method will therefore help to

identify what different player identifications experience in relation to constraints,

involvement, and loyalty, thus providing valuable insight into player behavior and

preference.

Table 1. Definitions from studies establishing key behavioral features used in serious

games

Authors

Features

Behavioral descriptors

Hamari &

Tuuunanen [27];

Tseng [28]

Player status

Current player of either (or

both) HPWU or POGO

Former player of either (or both)

HPWU or POGO

Dunham et al.

[19]; Ellis et al.

[12]; Ip & Jacobs

[24]; Kirman &

Lawson [30];

Loporcaro et al.

[23]; Manero et al.

[22]; Tuunanen &

Hamari [21];

Yee [29]

Player self-

identification

Hardcore:

Those who invest a

significant amount

of their recreational

time and resources

to gaming, and who

also have more

knowledge and

skills in games

In-between

(mid-core):

Those players

that exist in-

between

hardcore and

casual players

Casual:

Those who

play games

casually, in

short

sessions or

infrequently

No-

identification:

Those players

who have not

yet established

a clear player

identification

Table 2. Definitions from studies establishing key psychographic factors from the health-

related benefits literature

Authors

Psychographic

Domains

Psychographic factors

Alexandris et al.

[32, 33]; Jun et al.

[38]; Smith &

Smith [35]; Smith

[41]

Constraints

(Barrier)

Structural:

Constraints external

to an individual

(e.g., distance, cost)

Interpersonal:

Inability to find

partners to

participate

(e.g., lack of

other players)

Intrapersonal:

Internal psychological

constraints (e.g., confidence,

lack of interest)

Alexandris et al.

[32, 33]; Havitz et

al. [31]; Smith &

Smith [35]; Smith

[41]

Involvement

(Enabler)

Sign-value:

Symbolic value – an

individual can

express their

identity through the

activity

Centrality:

The degree to

which the

activity is

central to one’s

life

Attraction:

Perceived

importance

and hedonic

value

Risk:

The perceived

or actual risk of

switching to

other games

Howat et al. [45]

[39, 40] Mahony

et al. [40];

Smith & Smith

[35]; Smith [41];

Tsiotsou et al. [39]

Loyalty

(Enabler)

Attitudinal:

The affection held

toward the brand

Word-of-Mouth recommendation:

Behavioral intention of word-of-mouth

recommendation

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International Journal of Serious Games Volume 8, Issue 2, June 2021

ISSN: 2384-8766 https://doi.org/10.17083/ijsg.v8i2.422

4 Methods

A qualitative approach was used by applying a combined psychographic-behavioral

qualitative methodology to explore both psychographic domains (constraints, involvement,

and loyalty) [32, 33, 35, 41] and behavioral descriptors (player status and player self-

identification) (see Table 1). Ethical approval was obtained from the Macquarie University

Human Research Ethics Committee for Medical Sciences (Reference No:

52019601512435).

4.1 Sample and recruitment

We conducted a qualitative proforma in 2020 (2 February – 1 March 2020 inclusive) as part

of a larger study to examine PGO and HPWU use and player experience. Participant

recruitment was conducted online via four subreddit forums dedicated to PGO or HPWU

(r/WizardsUnite, r/PokemonGO, r/harrypotterwu, and r/TheSilphRoad). A recruitment post

was pinned to the top of each subreddit from 2 February to 1 March 2020, directing

individuals to the participant information page via Qualtrics. Participants were informed

that participation was voluntary, that they could withdraw at any time before submitting

their final responses, and that to be eligible they needed to be 18 years or older and have

played the English versions of PGO or HPWU for at least a week. Those who consented to

participate were directed to the open-ended, text-box survey (proforma) which took 15 to

20 minutes to complete. No incentives were offered for taking part. Participants were

informed not to provide any identifiable personal information. IP addresses of participants

were recorded by Qualtrics to identify repeat visits. Duplicate entries were not permitted

after the participant had submitted the proforma. The demographic information from 1052

participants is shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Demographic information

Sample characteristics

Number of participants

Gender

Male

381

Female

470

Other/unindicated

201

Age

18-25 years old

240

26-35 years old

460

36-45 years old

183

46-55 years old

>55 years old

Unindicated

Country of residence

USA

515

Europe

292

Other Americas

Oceania

Asia

Middle East

Africa

Unindicated

4.2 Proforma (open-ended, text-box survey)

The proforma included a total of 25 open-ended questions. Proformas differ from structured

interviews or closed question surveys [46, 47] which are highly formalized and can be rigid.

Instead, the proforma is a qualitative data collection tool taking the form of an open-ended,

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text-box survey, containing several specific open-ended questions [48, 49]. Proformas are

designed to encourage expansive answers from participants. To collect additional

participant information, adaptations to traditional development and application of the

proforma allowed for the addition of categorical behavioral descriptor type questions such

as player self-identification groups (hardcore, in-between, casual, no identification) and

player status (current or former player).

4.3 Analysis

Players of PGO or HPWU were asked to categorize their gameplay style based on the

behavioral descriptors of hardcore, in-between, casual, with a fourth category for those

who had no idea how to identify themselves (no identification). Therefore, differences in

constraints, involvement and loyalty between each group were evaluated based on self-

reported behavioral descriptors. The second level of behavioral data was also used to

categorize participant profiles based on whether they were current or former players

(discontinued one or both games).

We extracted psychographic characteristics (perceived constraints, involvement,

and loyalty) [32, 33, 35, 41] from replies in the open-text proforma questions. The two

behavioral levels of 1) player status - whether the player is a current player or former player

of the game and; 2) player self-identification group - how the player self-identifies

themselves (casual, in-between, hardcore, no-identification) were juxtaposed with the

psychographic aspects of constraints, involvement and loyalty in the analysis, with the data

management facilitated by using NVivo 12 Plus (QSR International) [50]. Data were

analysed using Framework Analysis [51] which is a qualitative framework that is aptly

suited for mapping and coding framework domains. Our coding framework is based on

previous work [34, 35], and provide a clear coding structure to apply on data to specify and

examine loyalty, involvement, and constraint domains, forming our codebook. This

involved a five-step process (familiarization, identifying a thematic framework, indexing,

charting, mapping and interpretation) [51].

The research coders identified and categorized the factors (word-of-mouth,

centrality, distance, etc.) to their domains (constraints, involvement, loyalty) derived from

an analysis of answers from open-ended text-box questions. By assigning framework

component labels where appropriate, the initial coding scheme was reviewed,

contextualized and adapted. The coding process was validated by sharing the coding and

using the coding framework to code the text as well as by reporting coded text back to the

larger group. Our coding process included JS training ML and KY to use the coding

framework. Three questions were initially coded and cross-checked to determine if we were

all coding in the same way. We validated our coding process by coming together as a team

and discussing and reflecting on any discrepancies in our initial coding. Once the coding

framework was established, we progressed with the coding process for the remaining open-

ended questions. Discrepancies that we could not settle through our coding team were

resolved through the wider team with JS, KY & ML reporting findings back to the larger

team on a regular basis.

The research team regularly met to discuss data and as demonstrated above this

involved an iterative process until consensus was met. Data was sifted, charted, and sorted

that addressed key domains of the framework. Finally, the findings from the qualitative

mapping method were visually displayed [52, 53] by juxtaposing psychographic factors and

behavioral descriptors.

5 Results

A summary of the respondent’s player status and self-identification behavioral descriptors

of those participants responding to the open-ended, text box proforma are shown in Table

4. Themes and related sub-themes are outlined in Table 5.

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International Journal of Serious Games Volume 8, Issue 2, June 2021

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Table 4. Player status and self-identification descriptors of the sample

Self-identification characteristics

HPWU current players

512

Player self-identification

Group one: No identification

Group two: Casual

295

Group three: In-between

137

Group four: Hardcore

HPWU former players

Player self-identification

Group one: No identification

Group two: Casual

Group three: In-between

Group four: Hardcore

PGO current players

550

Player self-identification

Group one: No identification

Group two: Casual

245

Group three: In-between

189

Group four: Hardcore

PGO former players

152

Player self-identification

Group one: No identification

Group two: Casual

Group three: In-between

Group four: Hardcore

Table 5. Key themes and related sub-themes

Themes

Theme 1: Player Loyalty

Sub-themes:

Attitudinal (attitudes towards the brand)

Word-of-mouth recommendations (adoption based on sources of recommendation)

Theme 2: Player Involvement

Sub-themes:

Sign-value (represents the symbolic value of playing PGO/HPWU)

Risk of switching sustainers (risk of making a bad choice in switching)

Centrality (how central the game is to one’s life).

Attraction (activity importance and pleasure gained)

Theme 3: Player Constraints

Sub-themes:

Distance (the distance one needs to travel to participate)

Lack of time (wait time between tasks and waiting for others)

Lack of access/opportunities to play (bugs, glitches, and faulty game mechanics)

External obligations/other priorities (competing obligations)

Costs (Cost to play)

Lack of knowledge and understanding (lack of understanding of game mechanics)

Lack of interest (boredom and the repetitiveness)

Lack of confidence (lack of confidence in ability to deal with the difficulty of the game)

Lack of significant others (lack of others to play with)

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5.1 Presentation of the qualitative mapping method

The final step was to visually represent a simplified account [52, 53] of player preference

and behavior, supported by the use of NVivo 12 Plus (QSR International) [50]. This is

demonstrated through the qualitative psychographic-behavioral summary of results Table

(See Table 6) highlighting patterns of relationships based on the different factors across

current and former player views and self-identification types. The summary of data on

player preference and behavior shown in our qualitative map (See Table 6) represent the

‘presence’ or ‘absence’ of constraints (showing constraints can be experienced in several

ways) and enablers (showing multiple enablers). The qualitative mapping method can

therefore be used to show patterns across different factors shown in the psychographic-

behavioral mapping method. For our qualitative mapping method, it is not about the number

of times something is mentioned, it is about hermeneutics and patterns of themes that Table

6 displays [52-54].

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Table 6. A psychographic-behavioral qualitative mapping method of current players and former players and the interaction across constraints and

enablers

Behavioral descriptors

Psychographics

Player Constraints

Player Enablers

Player

Identification

Group

Player

Status

Player

Game

Type

Distance

Lack of time

Lack of access/opportunity

External obligations

Cost

Lack of knowledge/ understanding

Lack of interest

Lack of confidence

Lack of significant others

Sign

-value

Risk

(switching)

Centrality

Attraction

Word

-of-mouth

Attitudinal

Hardcore

Current

HPWU



Current

PGO



Hardcore

Former

HPWU



Former

PGO



In-between

Current

HPWU



Current

PGO



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Behavioral descriptors

Psychographics

Player Constraints

Player Enablers

Player

Identification

Group

Player

Status

Player

Game

Type

Distance

Lack of time

Lack of access/opportunity

External obligations

Cost

Lack of knowledge/ understanding

Lack of interest

Lack of confidence

Lack of significant others

Sign

-value

Risk

(switching)

Centrality

Attraction

Word

-of-mouth

Attitudinal

In-between

Former

HPWU



Former

PGO



Casual

Current

HPWU



Current

PGO



Casual

Former

HPWU



Former

PGO



identification

Current

HPWU



Current

PGO



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International Journal of Serious Games Volume 8, Issue 2, June 2021

ISSN: 2384-8766 https://doi.org/10.17083/ijsg.v8i2.422

Behavioral descriptors

Psychographics

Player Constraints

Player Enablers

Player

Identification

Group

Player

Status

Player

Game

Type

Distance

Lack of time

Lack of access/opportunity

External obligations

Cost

Lack of knowledge/ understanding

Lack of interest

Lack of confidence

Lack of significant others

Sign

-value

Risk

(switching)

Centrality

Attraction

Word

-of-mouth

Attitudinal

identification

Former

HPWU



Former

PGO



KEY: : The extent to which factors were present; X: The extent to which factors were absent

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The different themes and related sub-themes are further explored in detail below.

5.2 Theme 1: Player Loyalty

5.2.1 Attitudinal

Only the current and former players in the no identification group reported no attitudinal

loyalty. In contrast, positive attitudes towards the company brand Niantic revealed that

attitudinal loyalty existed across all other groups of current and former players of HPWU

and PGO:

“[I am playing] to support Niantic (I’m a former ingress player).” (PGO game: current in-

between player)

5.2.2 Word-of-mouth recommendations

Most current and former players across the different player identifications (excluding

hardcore HPWU former players) were influenced by word-of-mouth (from friends, partner,

family, discord, etc.) resulting in the adoption of either HPWU or PGO games:

“I was playing Pokémon Go at the time and some friends from that community were talking

about it [HPWU].” (HPWU game: current no identification player)

5.3 Theme 2: Player Involvement

5.3.1 Sign-value

Sign-value was present across all current and former player groups. Across different player

profiles, sign-value was strongly influenced by the Harry Potter and Pokémon franchise.

Sign-value ties and connects people to identify themselves as a fan. For example,

participants expressed their preference for the games through a connection to either Harry

Potter or Pokémon as a long-term fan. The fantasy world promoted by AR connects the

individual to the larger franchise (experiential consumption). This converges across all

player groups of HPWU and PGO, for current and former players alike:

“being a loyal Potterhead” (PGO game: current in-between player)

5.3.2 Risk of switching sustainers

Interestingly, the no-identification player group did not report risk of switching sustainers.

Likewise, former players of PGO also did not report any type of risk of switching sustainers

contrasting with their counterparts (current players) who all reported the risk of switching

sustainers. For the current player group (hardcore, in-between and casual), switching was

offset by Fear Of Missing Out (FOMO) or sunk costs accredited to their involvement, and

this was associated with play across both games. Moreover, former in-between and casual

players of HPWU mentioned that it was simply impossible to play both games at the same

time:

“Sunk costs and a sense of obligation: if I leave my mod [game community moderator]

duties, it will be extremely difficult for anyone or even multiple people to take over what I

do.” (PGO game: current hardcore player)

5.3.3 Centrality

For the majority of players (excluding former hardcore players), playing HPWU and/or

PGO provides a sense of routine, accomplishment, and reason to go outside, making these

two games central to the players’ life and movement patterns. Besides the discovery of new

places, and plans to fit one’s vacation around PGO/HPWU for playtime (causal in-between

and hardcore self-identified player types), participants also reported feeling strongly

committed to accomplish in-game tasks:

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ISSN: 2384-8766 https://doi.org/10.17083/ijsg.v8i2.422

“I’m going to [City] because of Pokémon go. I’ve been there before, but this trip is

specifically because of Pokémon go and I would not have gone otherwise.” (PGO game:

current hardcore player)

5.3.4 Attraction

Attraction was present across all current and former player groups. Both games were

perceived as fun and enjoyable, with player preference geared towards enjoyment and

pleasure, a finding that has consistently been shown across current and former player groups

alike. It was reported (across different self-identifications of current and former players) by

those playing HPWU, that play was largely brought about by having played and enjoyed

PGO initially:

“I already loved playing Pokémon go, and Harry Potter therefore seemed perfect.” (HPWU

game: former casual player)

5.4 Theme 3: Player Constraints

5.4.1 Structural Constraint: Distance

For HPWU (current in-between and current and former casual players) and PGO players

(current in-between players), our study found that a need to travel long distances (e.g.,

beyond comfortable walking distance) to game-associated locations often necessitated the

use of personal transportation. Beyond acting as a constraint to gameplay, this also

negatively impacted social interactions, as players who had access to transport often chose

to stay in the comfort of their car whilst carrying out collaborative in-game activities.

Interestingly, the majority of former HPWU and PGO players did not report distance to be

an issue, with one exception of a HPWU casual player reporting that there were not many

nearby PoIs around where they live:

“Not much is available within walking distance.” (HPWU game: current casual player)

5.4.2 Structural Constraint: Lack of time

For current and former players of HPWU, lack of time as a game design issue was mostly

related to aspects of wait time between tasks and waiting for people to join for group play,

which was a barrier across all HPWU player identifications except for current hardcore

players who did not report lack of time as a constraint. Lack of time was only reported by

former casual players of PGO, it was stated that getting more out of PGO would have

required a significantly larger time investment than they were willing to give:

“Getting more out of the game would require exponentially more time investments” (PGO

game: former casual player)

5.4.3 Structural Constraint: Lack of access/opportunities to play

Lack of access was a strong and consistent constraint across all player identities of both

games. Bugs, glitches, and faulty game mechanics combined with a lack of Foundables for

HPWU or the impossibility of obtaining regional Pokémon were mentioned as barriers to

engagement across all player types:

“Dislike regional Pokémon - the idea is fun, but realistically most people will never be able

to legitimately obtain regionals from all over the world, and as a completionist, this does

bother me” (PGO game: current hardcore player)

5.4.4 Structural Constraint: External obligations/other priorities

Although family or work obligations were important factors that affected how much

different player identifications could engage, players were also unwilling to invest any

additional time in gaming, because of this particular constraint. Players across the different

player identifications also specifically reported having to choose between the two games or

prioritize one over the other, as it was just too difficult to play both games at the same time,

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with their choice of which game to stay with determined by which of the two games that

they enjoyed most:

“It was also hard to combine with Pokémon Go and I preferred that game, so I deleted WU

[Wizard Unite – HPWU]” (HPWU game: former in-between player)

5.4.5 Structural Constraint: Costs

Cost to play was an important factor for current and former players of both games. Neither

the hardcore players of PGO nor the no-identification group of former HPWU and PGO

groups reported cost to be an issue:

“Super limited spell power resource means you don't do much until you start paying for

upgrades to this.” (HPWU game: former hardcore player)

5.4.6 Intrapersonal Constraint: Lack of knowledge and understanding

Lack of knowledge and understanding was not reported by current HPWU or PGO players.

Only former players of HPWU (in-between and no identification players) and some of the

former players of PGO (in-between, casual and no-identification) reported a lack of

understanding and comprehension of game mechanics:

“Constant changes with no easy way to know how to utilize the new system. i.e., appraisal

changes”. (PGO game: former casual player)

5.4.7 Intrapersonal Constraint: Lack of interest

Across the different player identifications, for current and former players of PGO and

HPWU alike, the boredom and the repetitiveness of the HPWU or PGO games were raised

as issues. For many HPWU and PGO former players, boredom was often reported as a

reason to why they switched over to the other Niantic game (selecting either HPWU or

PGO). This type of decrease of interest in play or switching behavior was consistent across

all different player groups:

“I realized I liked Pokémon Go a great deal more and WU was taking time away from it.”

(HPWU game: former casual player)

5.4.8 Intrapersonal Constraint: Lack of confidence

For HPWU and PGO player identifications, players across the majority of groups

(excluding current hardcore HPWU players and former no-identification PGO players)

raised concerns over the difficulty of the game as a game design issue. Many players

generally had a lack of confidence in their ability to deal with the difficulty of the game,

stating that it was too complicated and presented too much information to process. Many

former players of both games echoed these sentiments, as they noted that the games were

just too complex and felt it was impossible to progress or win:

“Needs some here’s what you do, and why” (POGO game: former in-between player)

5.4.9 Interpersonal Constraint: Lack of Significant others

Current players of both games and across different player identifications reported a lack of

significant others playing the game, an inability to play with friends living in other

countries, and a requirement of having to play with strangers, spoofers (i.e., players who

alter their GPS data to ‘travel’ in the world without physically moving), or toxic local

players who negatively influence player perceptions which impacted their play experience.

For former players of PGO in the no identification group, a lack of significant others playing

was also a reason to switch to HPWU where they had existing playing companions. The

need or desire for virtual teammates to replace strangers was also reported, echoing the

issues related to group play (waiting time, etc.). Also, for both current and former players,

a lack of community and lack of linking with local players were considered problematic:

“Lack of local players (compared with PGO).” (HPWU game: current no identification

player).

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6 Discussion

6.1 Key Findings

Our study considered player preference and behavior in two location-based AR exergames

- PGO and HPWU, using a combined psychographic-behavioral qualitative mapping

method. Our study reports three themes consisting of ‘player loyalty’, ‘player involvement’

and ‘player constraints’. Our approach allowed us to gain an enhanced understanding of the

similarity and variation between player preferences (based on psychographic-behavioral

mapping) for both current players and former players of HPWU and PGO. Through this,

we identified factors (sub-themes, e.g., sign-value, word-of-mouth) that related to multiple

constraints and enablers that inhibit or allow player preference and behavior to be sustained.

Our findings highlight that constraints do not always result in instant defection (quit or stop

playing the game) as displayed by the current players who are constrained by a series of

barriers, but yet still maintain their preferences and behavior towards PGO and HPWU.

Although constraints are those aspects that hinder preferences and behavior, we have also

identified important enablers, those aspects that sustain player preferences and behavior.

Thus, the practical application of our study is that game designers could borrow from the

strength of our qualitative study and utilize our qualitative mapping method in a diagnostic

manner to design involvement type strategies within exergames to help support different

player identifications [5, 6, 20].

6.2 Implications of Findings

In terms of player typologies [12, 24, 25, 27, 29, 30], psychographic criteria juxtaposed

with behavioral descriptors was a useful way to highlight player preferences and behavior

across different player identifications of HPWU and PGO. Our qualitative mapping method

therefore goes further than psychographics or behavioral descriptors alone. We extend

segmentation theory by revealing the importance of qualitative research in our novel

psychographic-behavioral mapping method, illuminating not only how the theory is of use,

but also how theory can be used in a practical manner to show game designers how

preferences and behavior is maintained despite players encountering constraints. If we can

harness this type of knowledge by promoting involvement as a game design strategy as well

as addressing some constraints directly within the game itself, it could help to prevent some

players who may otherwise quit the game as per the former player group. Game designers

should therefore focus on ways to enhance player involvement through ‘attraction’,

‘centrality’, ‘symbolic value’ and ‘risk of switching’ within exergames, since these

involvement factors are linked to loyalty (strongly held attachment) to the brand.

Confirming prior studies [35, 55, 56], player constraints were experienced in several

ways for both current and former players and across different player identities. In line with

this principle, we also found a similar pattern suggesting constraint factors interacted in

several different ways. Smith and Smith [35] state that interactions between constraints are

important to identify due to the potential for several (structural, interpersonal intrapersonal)

different constraints to interact and operate at the same time, and this can inhibit player

preference and behavior. Recently, the role of brand loyalty in HPWU and PGO games

were identified as a way to understand player engagement [3]. Our study adds to this

literature by showing that despite constraints Niantic manages to maintain loyal players to

its brand (brand loyalty), since many players who drop one Niantic game (HPWU or PGO)

were shown to do so to prioritize another Niantic game (HPWU or PGO). This was shown

in the following constraints reported in our study: external obligations (due to competing

demands, a choice between the two games was made), and a lack of significant others (a

lack of significant others playing was a reason to switch from PGO over to HPWU).

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6.3 An Actionable Game Design Strategy using Player Involvement

For most self-identification types (excluding no-identification), player involvement (self—

expression through symbolic value and positive attitudes toward the franchise) was inter-

related with attitudinal loyalty (brand loyalty). Involvement reported in the extant literature

is said to positively influence loyalty to maintain preference and behavior [35, 57]. In

contrast to this finding, for some player identities, player preference may solely be related

to the fun or symbolic and emotional experiences attained. For example, this finding was

demonstrated in the no identification group, since this was the only player group not to

report any type of attitudinal loyalty or attachment to the Niantic brand. Instead, player

preference for this group directly related to a strong attachment to the symbolic elements

of play and the pleasure reflected by the hedonic value of play (attraction and sign-value)

[4]. Moreover, unlike other player identities, the no-identification players did not report any

risk of switching sustainers (FOMO, or sunk costs accredited to their involvement). Game

designs that develop opportunities for the no-identification players to connect the franchise

(Harry Potter and Pokémon) to the Niantic brand will help to develop a strong brand image

for this specific player identification group to establish brand loyalty. This could be further

reinforced by Niantic having an online quality presence that continually visibly associates

the franchise to the brand, as well as promoting the Niantic brand and its mission at

forthcoming sponsored HPWU or PGO events.

AR in both HPWU and PGO provides an altered reality making it a memorable

experience [17, 58], but this can be experienced differently by how a player may wish or

desire to be viewed or portrayed to others [5, 20, 59]. For example, patterns between

involvement factors, show sign-value and attraction to be interesting findings to discuss

together in more detail. Some in-between and hardcore player identities refer to themselves

as ‘Potterheads’ (a devoted Harry Potter fan) showing sign-value is operating, as these

games seem to serve as an extension of how some groups of players want to be perceived

as more serious players of the game and is also reflected in the informal label of

‘Potterhead’ that these groups chose to describe themselves with. Player responses indicate

that through AR, fun experiences with the characters can also be reinforcing one’s player

identity in terms of what they expect and desire from an AR interaction - other player groups

refer to having a fantasy of becoming a ‘Pokémon trainer in real-life’. This has connotations

that player preference and continued behavior is linked to affective and emotional

attachment. For example, an individual may feel that they have had or gained something

extraordinary as a result of being part of the Harry Potter or the Pokémon world, and are

therefore less likely to change their preferences despite potential constraints encountered

[35]. Applying this principle to AR serious game design with an understanding of what

different player groups expect to experience matched with what they actually experience

from an AR interaction may be an avenue of future research to encourage and sustain

physical activity potentially leading to further long-term health benefits (7).

Our study indicates that player involvement is one potential game design strategy

that is linked to loyalty and therefore can sustain interactive preferences across player types

– something with clear implications for health-focused serious games [1]. These rich

findings as discussed above, cover several direct AR serious game design implications [6].

In addition, player involvement was also shown to play a central role across current and

former players, with some individuals even going so far as to organize their holidays around

their gameplay (centrality). For most player identities (excluding former hardcore PGO

players), gaming was both central in their lives with gaming experiences being fun and

enjoyable. Linking this evidence to AR serious games and its additional element of health-

related benefits, shows the health-related goal of serious games can and does successfully

avoid interfering with the fun elements of the exergame [1]. The idea we pose is an

extension of this, by focusing on increasing player involvement (attraction, sign-value

centrality and risk of switching sustainers) we can ultimately increase player loyalty to the

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brand, and this indirectly influences health-related outcomes such as maintaining physical

activity [1].

6.4 Future Directions and Limitations

Our findings suggest that current players of PGO and HPWU who attain enjoyment,

symbolic value, risk of switching and centrality maintain their preferences and behavior

towards PGO and HPWU despite encountering several constraints. Given that serious

games have a hidden agenda of promoting health-related benefits such as physical activity

(in HPWU and PGO), if we can keep players loyal, we can keep them physically fit.

However, this is an area that needs further exploration in terms of future research in testing

different ways to enhance player involvement directly through game design to mitigate

against defection and sustain health-related outcomes. This could be further examined by

considering its impact on long-term outcomes such as weight-loss when compared to a

reference group.

While models of player typologies are ubiquitous in the study of games, these models

are often based on the context of players engaging with traditional video games. As such,

further research should be done to specifically examine what design factors and gameplay

elements could enhance involvement and appeal to the different subgroups within the AR

player base [5, 6, 20]. For example, the Player Experience of Needs Satisfaction (PENS)

model, that investigates autonomy, competence, intuitive controls, and player’s sense of

presence during the game play predicts game enjoyment and persistence in video games

[60]. Notably, authors argue that usability, game narrative, mechanics, sound, and

environment etc. improves players experience and needs satisfaction [61]. A recent work

in immersive Virtual Reality exergames suggest PENS validity for designing and

evaluating various design features to fuel player’s motivation; and further show pronounce

differences among those who are focused on physical activity or entertainment [62]. How

game design features and usability relate to experiences of AR games is an area that needs

further investigation. Our qualitative mapping method to assess preferences and behavior

of two exergames through a psychographic-behavioral lens could therefore be translated

across other location-based AR exergames. However, a caveat to our findings include the

involvement factor called risk of switching sustainers, as this finding showed that FOMO

and sunk costs were commonly reported by participants as perceived sustainers of their

play, but such aspects could be linked with problematic playing (addiction, manipulation

etc.) as reported in the contentious revenue model of free-to-play games (gaining income

through voluntary purchases) [63]. As such this also needs to be considered, as the industry

requires much needed regulation on this matter with some authors arguing this should come

from outside of itself (academic and industry expertise) [63].

6.5 Conclusion

Our study provides a novel psychographic-behavioral qualitative mapping method for

exergames using real-world research. We identify real-world obstacles that players of

HPWU and PGO exergames face and how player involvement can help to shape and create

strong attitudes toward resistance to change preferences despite players encountering

several significant constraints. Player involvement can enhance our level of understanding

as to why players of these two games still participate when they are continually constrained

by other factors, such as the lack of other players or time etc. Our qualitative mapping

method may also fit the needs of a rapid implementation approach [64]. Our novel method

demonstrated here may be translated on a wider basis to other location-based AR

exergames, with player involvement potentially providing a mechanism through which we

can better understand potential audiences, allowing improvements in the design of health-

focused serious games to better improve health-related outcomes.

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